Cleopatra, the Last Pharaoh
The carpet in which she had enveloped herself to hide was opened to let her onto the floor in front of Caesar.1 A young girl of 21, Cleopatra quickly captivated the attention of Gaius Julius Caesar when he, a military genius, had come to Alexandria. Though not known for sure then, even by Cleopatra, she was to be the last pharaoh Egypt was ever to see.
Cleopatra VII was born to Ptolemy XII in the early months of 69 B.C. At the time of her birth, Egypt had been unified under a pharaoh's rule for over 3,000 years. She descended from Macedonians who had ruled Egypt ever since the death of Alexander the Great, 254 years before. Cleopatra had two older sisters, one of whom became the Queen of Egypt for a short time, a younger sister, and two younger brothers (see Appendix 1, Chart 1).2
When the 17 year old Cleopatra came to the throne in 51 B.C., it is thought that she ruled jointly with her father, but he died several months later, at which time she assumed rule with her younger brother (and husband), Ptolemy XIII.3 In order to assume sole power over Egypt, Cleopatra asked for Julius Caesar's aid.4 Prior to this, Caesar had killed Cleopatra's guardian, Pompey.5
Caesar had been staying in the palace in Alexandria when Cleopatra showed up, hidden inside an oriental carpet. His main purpose in being there was to take control of Alexandria, However, when he saw Cleopatra, he became entranced by her.6 Caesar ended up supporting her goal to become the sole ruler of Egypt and brought in Roman soldiers to battle her brother. After a few attacks, Ptolemy XIII was defeated and killed.7
Caesar had taken an interest in her and even gave her some of Rome's land as stated by Cassius Dio: Caesar entered an assembly [of the Alexandrians] and produced Ptolemy [XIII] and Cleopatra. . . He bestowed the kingdom [of Egypt] upon them both and granted Cyprus to Arsinoe and the younger Ptolemy [XIV], their brother and sister. . . As well as seizing no part of Egypt, he even gave them some Roman territory.8 There has been some dispute over whether Caesar acted in this way because of an intoxication of Cleopatra's charms, or whether his "dominant idea . . . was to control the politics of Egypt by means of a skilled play upon the heart of Egypt," as Arthur Weigall thought.9 Perhaps both of them thought they were taking advantage of the other's power in the affair.
Their affair continued even after Cleopatra married her other brother, Ptolemy XIV in 48 B.C.10 Ptolemy XIV, a boy of twelve years, was given almost no power by Cleopatra.11 In 47 B.C., Cleopatra and Caesar went on a cruise in a magnificent ship up the Nile to pacify parts of Egypt.12 At one point, they visited Dendara, where Cleopatra was worshipped and Caesar ignored, which didn't make him too happy.13
After around two months, they returned to Alexandria, and Caesar left for Asia Minor. After he left, in the first week of September 47 B.C.,14 a son, presumably his, named Ptolemy Caesar whom the Alexandrites called Caesarion (Little Caesar), was born to Cleopatra.15 There are contrasting opinions both on whether it was really Caesar's child, and when he was born.16 It is very possible that Cleopatra took on a lover outside her palace during the time she remained in Alexandria after Caesar's departure. She would have done this for political reasons, for her son would be an heir to Caesar.17
After Caesar went to Asia minor and other areas, he went back to Rome. On his journeys, he paraded in front of Arsinoe, Cleopatra's younger sister, who had been captured, in chains.18 Also, while in Asia Minor, after a victory at Zela, he coined the phrase, "I came, I saw, I conquered."19 Soon afterward, in 45 B.C., Cleopatra and Caesarion left for Rome.20
There were both political and personal reasons for Cleopatra's journey to Rome. One reason was to make sure that peace continued between Egypt and Rome. However, Cleopatra had an ulterior motive, namely to be near Caesar once more.21 At this time, Caesar was less devoted to Cleopatra, partially since he had recently had an affair with the wife of the King of Mauretainia.22 However, he still accommodated her in a queenly fashion, and took an interest in her once more.23
The Romans hated the Egyptian queen; even Cicero wrote about how he hated her. He said that he "saw nothing to object to in Cleopatra's flight."24 Since Bigamy was forbidden in Rome, Cleopatra wasn't even honorably recognized to be associated with Caesar (since he was already married to Calpurnia).25 Nevertheless, Caesar still honored her opinions, perhaps too much.
It is thought that it was Cleopatra who encouraged Caesar to use force to acquire what he wanted, specifically to be a dictator. If this was true, Caesar listened too much to Cleopatra, and was killed because of it.26 However, today's society owes it's calendar to Caesar's affiliation with Cleopatra. The year at that time only encompassed 355 days, with extra months added here and there, in no order, as the people in charge saw fit. However, due to political problems, it was often forgotten, so the months became more and more unseasonable. An Egyptian astronomer came to Rome with Cleopatra and aided Caesar in creating the 365 day year. Also, Caesar was behind the creation of large public libraries in Rome, modeled after the Alexandrian system.27
While Cleopatra was in Rome, Caesar went off to Spain, and on his way back, he wrote his will, making his nephew, Gaius Octavius, his main heir. It made no mention of Caesarion, because, had it been his son, Roman law forbade illegitimate children from becoming inheritors.28 Soon after the will was drawn up, Caesar was planning to leave for a "campaign" in the Orient,29 but two days before he was scheduled to leave, he was assassinated in March of 44 B.C.
Within a few days after his murder, Cleopatra traveled back to Egypt with her son and brother. However, her brother died soon after they returned, and it is very likely that Cleopatra, herself killed him.30 If this is true, it was most likely done so that she could co-rule with her son, an infant as he was.31
In the clash that followed Caesar's murder involving Cassius and Brutus against the new Triumverate (Antony, Octavian, and Lepidus), she mostly supported the Triumverate, though she had strong personal anger against Octavian who talked of himself being the sole heir to Caesar, when Cleopatra knew Caesarion was the only true heir.32 When the triumverate started to break up, Cleopatra waited until one of them prevailed. When Mark Antony won out, Cleopatra supported him.33 As she had done with Caesar, Cleopatra became a mistress for Antony.34
An alliance grew stronger and stronger between Antony and Cleopatra. Over the years, Antony gave huge masses of land to the Egyptian queen, which hurt his position in Rome greatly.35 Octavian didn't take this lightly and "asserted that the menace with which Cleopatra threatened the Roman state was the 'grimmest of dangers' (tristissimum periculum)," in 33 B.C.36 This was highly exaggerated, but it was statements like this that stirred up the public against her.37 But Cleopatra apparently influenced Antony more than the people, much like she did Caesar, and Antony divorced Octavia, his wife in 32 B.C.38
In the late Autumn of 32 B.C., Octavian was provoking a war against Antony by depriving him of his position in the triumverate and his future office of consulship, by reducing him to a privatus.39 Instead, war was never declared on Antony, but on Cleopatra.40 However the declaration doesn't actually specify any formal charges on Cleopatra, but the propaganda that was unleashed at the time accused her of "lust, whoring, incest, use of magic and drugs, drunkenness, animal worship, [and] rampant luxury."41 In fact, she was merely drawn to be the stereotypical enemy as Michael Grant said: She was the ideal national foe, the oriental woman who had snared the Roman leader in her evil luxury, the harlot who had seized Roman territories, until even Rome was not safe from her degenerate alien hordes.42
At one point, she and Antony arrived at Actium, one of their camps (see Appendix 1, Figure 1), and Octavian blocked them from escaping. One of the most famous battles of history occurred near Actium in September of 31 B.C. when they tried to get out.43 Antony's and Octavian's ships fought vigorously, and the next moment while the ships were locked in battle, Cleopatra escaped, a plan most likely devised by Antony and Cleopatra. When Antony's troops saw the Queen's ship leaving, they were to follow, but this wasn't very easy, since Octavian's fleet was incredibly powerful.44 Antony escaped, but around five thousand of his men were killed and about 150 of them surrendered, making the loss great.45
After about a year, in 30 B.C., Octavian claimed Egypt as a Roman province.46 Soon after this, Antony got word that Cleopatra had killed herself, and Antony felt he could not live without her, and he stabbed himself, but did not immediately die.47 When Cleopatra heard this, she ordered her servants to bring him to her and he (her husband under Egyptian, but not Roman law) died in her arms.48
Soon after this, Octavian officially entered Alexandria and captured the Egyptian Queen.49 Distraught by her capture and Octavian's victory, Cleopatra killed herself, by which means is not known.50 When Octavian's officers entered her house and rushed up to her room, they saw the late Cleopatra as detailed by Arthur Weigall: Bursting open the door, they ran up the stairs to the upper chamber, and immediately their worst fears were realized. Cleopatra, already dead, lay stretched upon her bed of gold, arrayed in her Grecian robes of state, and decked with all her regal jewels, the royal diadem of the Ptolemies encircling her brow. Upon the floor at her feet Iras [a female servant] was just breathing her last; and Charmion [another female servant], scarcely able to stand, was tottering at the bedside, trying to adjust the Queen's crown. Soon after Cleopatra died, Octavian killed Caesarion and Antony's eldest son, Antyllus.51
And so, Cleopatra's life came to an end, along with it, a 3,000 year era. The stately queen who was pulled between love and what was best for the people departed in the most honorable of ways. Yet everlasting pieces of Cleopatra's work are still around. Cleopatra lives on!
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Endnotes